The philosophers of ancient Greece were some of the first thinkers to attempt to rationalize the universe around them. Their determination to make sense of a world that might appear chaotic represented a dramatic step towards scientific thinking and enlightenment. It is for this, that they are time and again remembered. They were often stoic, thoughtful individuals who would work together to develop and refurbish their philosophies.

Every once in a while, however,… they would disagree.

This article is part one of three in which we examine the philosophies of Heraclitus (535-475 BCE) and Parmenides (515-445 BCE). These men were similar in many regards. They were both presocratic philosophers who asked the very fundamental question: what exactly is the universe? This branch of philosophy is known as ‘metaphysics’, and it basically seeks to explain the nature of reality. Both philosophers came to the conclusion that all the universe can be reduced to one thing; this is called “Monism”, which was first made notable by our good friend, the philosopher Thales.

Now, while both philosophers came to the conclusion that the universe can be reduced to one thing, they had a very serious disagreement about what exactly that thing was. Their disagreement on metaphysics would be extrapolated to include some very interesting implications.

The Philosophy

Heraclitus

Heraclitus believed that the universe was governed by a divine logos or reason. This fundamental law of the universe held all things in perfect balance. According to Heraclitus, the unity of the universe is composed of a balancing of opposites. Day becomes night and hot will become cold. The continuous changing of reality was the one fundamental constancy within the cosmos. This belief lead Heraclitus to the conclusion that all things are always in flux and that the only thing that did not change was change itself.

To Heraclitus, the nature of reality was in a constant war of change. Fire would turn to air, air would become water and water would become one with the earth. Similarly, life is followed by death and with every death there is a birth of life. This war within the nature of reality encompassed all things. It was not a process, because that would indicate that things only proceed in one direction. Rather, the universe and its constant changing was more like a circle, shifting back and forth constantly and without rest.

Heraclitus attempted to demonstrate his idea that all the universe was in flux. He used the example of a river. The philosopher stated that…

“No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it’s not the same river and he’s not the same man”.

By this he means that the moment you step into a river, the water is displaced with new water and the nature of the river is changed permanently. The man stepping in the river is also consistently changing. The man loses skin cells, his skin is made wet by the river, and he has aged every so slightly since stepping in the river. Small, unavoidable changes in both the man and the river make them different from the way they were before.

This would appear to demonstrate Heraclitus’s belief that all things are changing, and that the one fundamental law of the cosmos was that everything is flux.

check back with us soon to read the second installment where we examine the philosophy of Parmenides!

Theseus is a popular hero in the mythology of ancient Greece. He was the son of Aegus, king of Athens, and Aethra, daughter of the king of Troezen. In some versions of the story of Theseus, it is told that he was the son of Poseidon and Aegus; this is possible only after Aethra slept with both the king of Athens and the god of the ocean in one night. This detail of having two fathers is common in Greek mythology, and it was said to have blessed Theseus with both mortal and immortal qualities.

Theseus grew up in Troezen, the small town outside of Athens where his mother was queen. his father had departed to Athens before Theseus was born. Before he left, Aegus placed his sword and sandals under a large stone. He stated that once Theseus had reached manhood, he would roll away the stone, collect the tools underneath and present himself in Athens to be accepted as a prince.

When Theseus reached his adolescence, he was lead to the stone by his mother. He rolled it away with ease and collected the shoes and the sword. As Theseus prepared to leave for Athens, Aethra begged him to travel by sea because the roads were treacherous and infested with thieves and murderers.

Theseus, perhaps with a rebellious, teenage spirit, decided to travel to Athens by road, paying no heed to the warning of danger. Theseus had heard the tales of  Heracles, the Greek hero whose heroic exploits had gained him fame at this time. Theseus was determined to prove his worth as a hero by traveling the perilous road alone.

Theseus encountered and defeated many villains on the way to Athens. He defeated a murderer named Periphetes, who was known for assaulting travelers with his iron club. Theseus conquered the monster and took his weapon as a trophy.

He then crushed a man named Procrustes, or the stretcher. This murderer would tie travelers to his iron bed. Any migrant who was shorter than the bed would be stretched to painful lengths. If they were too tall for the bed, the victim would have parts of his or her limbs chopped off by Procrustes. Theseus slew him as well and began to gain a reputation as a hero.

After overcoming the perils of the road, Theseus arrived in Athens to face new dangers.  Medea, the sorceress who had fled from Corinth after her separation with Jason, had married Theseus’ father and feared the return of prince Theseus. She worried that with the coming of her husband’s son, her influence over the king would weaken. She convinced king Aegus to be wary of the young stranger and present him with a  cup of poison. 

However as soon as Theseus stepped forward to drink the elixir, his father recognized the sword that hung from the young man’s belt. The king slapped the cup from his son’s hand and accepted him as the rightful heir of Athens. Medea is said to have fled, in fear of the certain repercussions of her treachery.

Theseus’ reunion with his father was short lived. The Athenians were in a state of peril and great affliction. Every year, Athens was forced to send seven maidens and seven young men to the island of Crete. The youths were presented to King Minos who demanded human offerings to be fed to his monster, the Minotaur.

The Minotaur was a vicious creature with the head of a bull and the body of a man. It was said to possess great strength and feed on the flesh of humans. The Minotaur was locked in a labyrinth constructed by Daedalus, the brilliant inventor who would one day create wings of flight for himself and his son Icarus. The labyrinth was said to be so artfully contrived that anybody caught in it, would never find an escape unassisted. The victims caught in the labyrinth would wander helplessly, deeper and deeper into the maze until they were eventually caught and devoured by the Minotaur.

Theseus, hearing the tale of the Athenian tributes and the fate that awaited them, swore to defeat this monster and prove himself a worthy hero. At the outset of his journey, Theseus boarded a ship with black sails headed for the island of Crete and the Minotaur. He swore to his father that upon his triumphant return, he would fly white sails so that all of Athens would know of his victory.

When Theseus arrived at Crete with the other tributes he was brought before King Minos and his daughter Ariadne. The young princess was deeply enamored with Theseus and decided to help him in his task to defeat the Minotaur. In the dead of night, Ariadne came to the prison where the Athenian tributes were being held. She freed Theseus and presented him with a sword and a ball of thread so that he might successfully navigate the labyrinth. Theseus swore that if he was successful, he would bring the princess with him on his return to Athens.

Ariadne lead Theseus to the entrance of the labyrinth where he tied one end of the thread to the door post, brandished his sword and entered to labyrinth to slay the monster. Daedalus, the creator of the labyrinth, had previously instructed Ariadne on the proper way to navigate the labyrinth. Theseus followed these instructions, heading straight down and never left or right.

In the dead of night Theseus came upon the sleeping Minotaur in the heart of the Labyrinth. The beast awoke and a great battle ensued. Theseus stabbed the monster in the throat with his sword and then decapitated its head completely. Following the thread, Theseus found his way to the exit and escaped that very night with the Athenian tributes and the princess Ariadne.

What happens next is of some dispute. Some versions of the myth say that Theseus left the princess on the beaches of Crete and sailed off without her. Other, more popular, versions describe how Theseus abandoned Ariadne on the island of Naxos while she slept. It was said that the goddess Hera had appeared to the Athenian hero in a dream and commanded him to leave the young woman behind. The god Dionysus would later witness the young woman crying on the shores of Naxos and marry her.

Theseus sailed to Athens, still distraught over abandoning Ariadne. the hero was so deeply upset that he forgot to replace the black sails with white ones, as he had promised his father. The king of Athens was waiting on a cliff as the ship approached. Upon seeing the black sails he was so overcome with grief, believing that his son was dead, that he cast himself off the cliff and onto the rocks below.

Theseus would become the king of Athens, returning home as a triumphant hero. The story of his slaying of the Minotaur remains a popular story to this day. It has been retold and re imagined over the years, making an appearance in several forms of media. Most recently the battle of Theseus and the Minotaur was reinvented and retold in the 2011 film The Immortals. 

The story of Prometheus, Epimetheus and Pandora is a popular myth of ancient Greece. It has been told and retold through the ages with several variations. It is a tale of Prometheus, the son of a titan who was punished for playing his part as the benefactor for mankind. It is a myth that recounts the creation of men and women as well as the birth of enlightenment and the unleashing of misery.

The story goes that during the creation of the universe, the earth formed out of chaos. The air collected and became transparent while the land and seas became solidified and structured. As the earth became suitable for life, the gods decided that it would be wise to bestow upon the planet creatures of life that might thrive and live through the graces of the gods.

The task of creating man and beasts was awarded to the titan brothers Prometheus and Epimetheus, whom had not been imprisoned with the other titans by Zeus. Prometheus was said to be wise and possessed the gift of foresight and often considered what would be needed several years in the future. Epimetheus was said to be rash and impulsive, unable to plan for the future and instead only cared for what had happened in the past.

The brothers set about creating life upon the earth. Epimetheus swiftly created several creatures that would live in the forests, swim in the seas and rivers, and fly through the air with the gift of flight. Epimetheus was so impulsive that he bestowed upon these creatures several gifts. Swiftness for some beasts, flight for others and the gift of strength and frightening claws for the most terrifying of creatures.

While his brother foolishly crafted creatures with little thought, Prometheus toiled diligently over the creation of man from a lump of clay. Prometheus shaped man after the image of the gods and allowed him to walk upright so that he might look towards the heavens. In some versions it is said that Epimetheus created man and Prometheus merely provided guidance. Regardless of whom the architect was, man was designed to be nobler than any other beast and was constructed so as to resemble the gods.

However upon completion of man, Prometheus discovered that his rash brother had bestowed all the gifts from the gods upon animals and had left none for humans. While the beasts possessed strength, swiftness, hardened shells and warm coats, man was left naked and weak with no means to live prosperously.

Prometheus was overcome with sadness for his creations, whom were living painfully and harshly on earth. Prometheus devised a plan to bestow upon man a great gift that will make them formidable against the beasts of the earth.

Prometheus defied the will of Zeus and traveled to Mount Olympus and stole fire from the gods, a gift that before was unknown to mankind. Some versions of the story describe how Prometheus was aided by the Goddess Hera. Other stories recall that Zeus stole fire from men and Prometheus took the fire back in defiance of Zeus.

At any rate, fire was bestowed upon mankind by Prometheus and with it came the beginning of civilization. Prometheus taught man how to craft tools from iron ore. He showed them how to plant crops and live through agriculture. Man learnt to craft weapons to defend themselves from wild animals. With fire they learnt to survive cold winters and defy the seasons. With fire man began to thrive and became superior to the animals of the wild.

Zeus was outraged by this transgression. He set in motion plans to punish Prometheus and mankind for their obstruction of the gods’ will. The punishment he devised was twofold.

First, Zeus commanded Hephaestus, the blacksmith for the God’s, to craft a creature so beautiful that it would plague the hearts of men. From a lump of clay, Hephaestus created the form of a woman. This woman was bestowed with gifts like a pleasing voice and unmatched beauty by the gods. They named her Pandora and she was commanded to marry Prometheus’s brother Epimetheus.

Pandora was the first woman, bestowed with beauty and grace. She is described by the Greek poet Hesiod in less than flattering terms when he wrote…

“From her is the race of women and female kind:
of her is the deadly race and tribe of women who
live amongst mortal men to their great trouble,
no helpmates in hateful poverty, but only in wealth.”

Epimetheus married Pandora despite Prometheus’ warnings to be wary of accepting gifts from Zeus. The warning was well placed. Before Pandora departed Olympus she was given a box or, in some versions of a story, a jar. She was warned by the gods to never open the box under any circumstances.

At first Pandora abided by this rule, however her curiosity was soon overwhelmed. She opened the box out of blind curiosity, so that she might see what it held.

Immediately, innumerable evil creatures flew out of the box and began to disperse themselves across the earth. Creatures like disease, famine and plague sprang from the box and began to wander the earth and haunt mankind. Pandora, in her fear, quickly shut the box. She closed the vessel on one last creature before it could escape, Hope.

As a result, it is said that while evil haunts this world, mankind will still have hope.

Prometheus was punished as well. He was sentenced by Zeus to spend eternity chained to a mountain where each day an eagle will devour his liver from his body. Prometheus was an immortal, so each night his liver regrew and his wound healed, only so that it may be ripped from his body the next day.

Prometheus spent thousands of years suffering this punishment, having his flesh devoured by a ferocious bird. It is said that he was chained to the mountain for so long that he eventually became one with the rock; all the while he looked on in agony as his creations, mankind, suffer the plagues that were released from Pandora’s box.

Some versions of the myth of Prometheus describe how he was eventually rescued by the hero Heracles. In some versions it is a vulture, not an eagle that feasts on the liver of Prometheus. Regardless of the details, the theme is a powerful one. It is a theme that has been revisited and examined by artists and writers for centuries to come.

Prometheus has often been viewed as a metaphor for human enlightenment and the disasters that can come from overreaching our limits. There are allusions to his legend in several later works of literature. Mary Shelly’s classic 1818 novel Frankenstein is subtitled “The Modern Prometheus”. It has been generally understood that this was done in an attempt to accentuate the theme of scientific progress and the dangers that may come with it.

In the 1937 novel Anthem by Ayn Rand, there are references to Prometheus and the bringing of fire. The novel depicts a dystopian future society which is characterized by being devoid of individualism, emotions or technological advances. The main character defies the laws of the elders and explores the arena of science in secret. He creates a rudimentary light bulb with the intent of sharing it with the world. This character is punished for his defiance of the tyrannical rulers and for his creation of light. After escaping the society, the character renames himself Prometheus, a very obvious tribute to the original benefactor of man.

As can be seen in Anthem, the story of Prometheus can also be viewed as a symbol of defiance of tyranny and authority. Comparisons have been drawn between Prometheus’ defiance of Zeus and the French revolution. His mission of helping humanity despite his own sufferings is often compared to the story of the crucifixion of Christ.

The story of Prometheus remains one of the most popular of the Greek myths. The original creator of man, he sought to help us live plentifully even while he heroically suffered the consequences. He is a reminder that human progress often comes from the selfless actions of others; that, with every advancement, there are often those who accept outrageous sufferings on our behalf.

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“Prometheus the Creation of Man” was written by Van Bryan

Book XI, The Book of the Dead, or the Nekyia, is one of the more self-contained chapters in The Odyssey. So much so that it actually feels like it has been included for its own sake rather than any necessity of plot development.

But why would Homer go to all this trouble? Well, partly to increase the glory of Odysseus, a glory reflected by the increase of his kleos or ‘what people hear about you’. In this instance people are told that Odysseus is a hero who has, quite literally, been to hell and back.

Not only is the feat extraordinary in itself, but puts him in an elite group of death-defying heroes along with Heracles who, for one of his twelve labours, was forced to fetch Cerberus, the three-headed guard-dog, from the halls of Hades.

Perhaps the more dominant reason for the descent is so Homer can indulge himself (and the reader) with a long line of impressive and entertaining cameos from dead heroes’ past.

In order to speak to the bodiless ghouls Odysseus must dig a pit three cubits in each direction and pour into it honey and milk, sweet wine, water, white barley, and the blood of freshly sacrificed sheep. This exotic cocktail is then drunk by the ghosts so they can speak truthfully to the living.

The first deceased soul to address him is, surprisingly for Odysseus, one of his own crew, Elpenor.

This foolish crewman never made it off Circe’s island as, after falling asleep drunk on her roof, “never thought, when I went down, to go by way of the long ladder, but blundered straight off the edge of the roof , so that my neck bone was broken out of its sockets”.

Odysseus’ interaction with Teiresias, his whole purpose for being in the house of Hades, lasts only 60 of the 640 lines of the book. In these lines our hero learns how he must appease the vengeful god Poseidon, but only after the restoration of his oikos (household).

Then comes his mother, “whom I had left alive when I went to sacred Ilion (Troy)”. She tells him of the fidelity of his wife Penelope, and the development of his son, Telemachus.

These formalities quickly dispensed with, Homer brings through a procession of fine and fascinating characters; a veritable who’s who of the heroic Greek world.

First come the wives and daughters of princes: Tyro, Antiope then Alkmene – mother of Heracles. Next his wife Megara then the mother/wife of Oedipus, Epicaste. Chloris is followed by Leda, the lover of Zeus in swan form, Iphimedeia, Pahidra and Procris. Next, the daughter of Minos and wife of Dionysus, Ariadne. Finally come Maira, Clymene and “Eriphyle the hateful”.

It should be stressed that this underworld excursion is narrated, not by Homer, but by Odysseus to Alcinoos and Arete, the king and queen of the Phaiakians, who are entertaining the shipwrecked hero following an unfortunate run-in with Poseidon.

At this point in his narrative he shows great showmanship by declaring, entirely out of the blue, that it is time for bed. This prompts Alcinoos to implore him to continue, culminating in praise of his integrity: “Odysseus, we as we look upon you do not imagine that you are a deceptive or thievish man, the sort that the black earth breeds in great numbers, people who wander widely, making up lying stories”.

The significance of this description is huge as “wily Odysseys, master of stratagems” is famed for, and proud of, being a first-rate liar. This has led scholars to debate whether the stories he tells the Phaiakians (including those of the Cyclops, Circe, Calypso, the Sirens, Scylla and Charybdis) are pure fantasy made up on the spot by a mythomaniac.

Odysseus, as a good guest must, continues to spin his yarn.

He talks of meeting the Greek high-commander Agamemnon, fresh from the literal blood-bath he met on his homecoming from Troy at the hands of his cousin Aegisthus “with the help of my sluttish wife” (i.e. Clytemnestra). This encounter is used to highlight the difference between the virtuous Penelope and the unfaithful Clytemnestra.

Agamemnon also warns Odysseus against an ostentatious return, instead urging him to enter Ithaca by stealth.

The next star turn is taken by the mighty Achilles who claims “I would rather follow the plough as thrall to another man… than be a king over all the perished dead”.

This seems to directly contradict his choice early in life when told he could either die young and famous as the hero of Troy, or old and unknown amongst his family. Scholastic interpretations state Achilles is either repenting his choice of war over peace, emphasising just how ghastly the underworld actually is, or simply talking rubbish.

Other dead heroes we meet are Achilles’ lover Patroclus, Antilochus and the mighty Ajax who shows great tenacity in grudge holding by refusing to talk to Odysseus following a quarrel they had at Troy: “Ajax, son of stately Telamon, could you then never even in death forget your anger against me”.

In addition to glimpses of Minos, Orion, and a quick chat with Heracles, Odysseus also sees the really grisly side of the underworld in the guise of three of the damned:

“I saw Tityos, Earth’s glorious son, lying in the plain, and sprawled over nine acres. Two vultures, sitting one on either side, were tearing his liver, plunging inside the caul.”

Next there is Tantalus, standing in a pool of water and under wonderful fruit trees. “Every time the old man, trying to drink, stooped over, the water would drain away….each time he would straighten up and reach with his hands for the fruit, the wind would toss them away”.

Finally, Sisyphus, doomed to failure in his task of pushing a great boulder up a hill, day and night, for all eternity.

Odysseus, despite his courage and curiosity, makes a sharp exit as “the hordes of dead men gathered about me with inhuman clamour, and green fear took hold of me”.

His macabre myth-making complete, our hero returns to the realm of mortal men, to the ultimate goal of reclaiming his oikos. He has seen enough of the dark and dreadful halls of Hades, certainly enough to avoid a premature return.

Instead his job is to stand proud in combat beside his son and loyal servants and add the 108 shameless Suitors to the wretched ranks of fleshless ghouls.

Early philosophy in ancient Greece sought to explain the nature of the universe. For instance, there was Thales of Miletus, who held the rather bold belief that the entire universe is made of water in one form or the other. This dramatic delve into the study of metaphysics was very popular with early philosophers and was inevitably built upon and reproduced in various forms.

By the time Epicurus was born in 341 BCE on the Aegean island of Samos, popular philosophy was shifting emphasis from metaphysics (determining the nature of the universe) to personal ethics. It was a change that was prompted by Socrates some hundred years beforehand. Socrates, through his teachings and lectures, forced individuals to examine basic human values and ethics.

And because of this, people began asking themselves some very profound and fundamental questions. What does it mean to be moral? What is the true nature of human ethics? How should one live their life?

Epicurus sought to answer these questions. His teachings would gain attention for their dramatic departure from commonly held religious beliefs. He was determined to help others comprehend the true purpose of life and come closer to understanding the nature of death.

EMPIRICAL WISDOM AND THE TRUE NATURE OF THE GODS

Epicurus was taught philosophy as a boy by a disciple of Plato on the island of Samos. As a man, he diligently studied the teachings of the atomist philosophers Democritus and Leucippus. Epicurus would eventually adopt the view that the entire universe is composed only of atoms and empty space, which is a line of thought that we are more accustomed to.

Epicurus believed that the universe was logical and behaved with predictable tendencies. Because of this, he was a strong proponent of finding true knowledge through observable, objectively verifiable phenomenon. In this regard his thinking was very similar to the modern scientific method. His beliefs ran counter to the commonly held idea that knowledge can be found through mythology and religion.

This stance was not one that was accepted by much of ancient Greece. It would appear that Epicurus was denying the existence of the gods in favor for a reliance on scientific thought. And indeed, Epicurus is said to have stated, “It is folly for a man to pray to the gods for that which he has the power to attain by himself”.

Needless to say, this made him rather unpopular.

Keeping in line with his belief that the gods did not determine the course of one’s life, he was also a strong proponent of the idea of free will. To Epicurus, each human was the captain of his or her own ship. You may choose to be virtuous or you may choose to be evil. It is your decision.

But if we are the author of our own stories, then that might seem to put a lot of pressure on an individual. If I am the sole force determining the course of my life, then how should I best lead my life?! Epicurus had an answer for this as well.

HOW TO LEAD YOUR LIFE

What is the goal of life? To Epicurus the goal of living was to find happiness through friendship, living humbly and avoiding pain and anxiety. He believed very strongly that by living peacefully and avoiding fear and pain, we could live fully. To Epicurus, living a virtuous life and a peaceful life were one in the same. This is seen when he states…

“It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely, honorably, and justly, and it is impossible to live wisely, honorably and justly without living pleasantly.”

A common, and incorrect, assumption of Epicurus was that he promoted finding happiness through material wealth and superficial excess.

Epicurus preached quite the opposite. He believed that the rich man was not the man who has the most, but rather the man who needs the least. He advised us, “Do not spoil what you have by desiring what you have not; remember that what you have now was once among the things you only hoped for.”

According to Epicurus, we should all seek a life of knowledge and temperance, surrounded by friends and free from fear and pain. And to Epicurus, there was one obstacle that plagued the hearts of men; it was this one thing that kept us from living a happy and fulfilled life.

DEATH IS NOTHING TO US

Epicurus believed that finding a life of peaceful contentment devoid of pain or fear should be the goal of every life. Epicurus believed that the one thing that was holding people back from truly accomplishing this feat was the fear of death.

The inhabitants of ancient Greece lived in constant fear of the wrath of the Gods. They viewed their mortal life as a temporary condition. Their sins and wrongdoings would be judged harshly by temperamental, vengeful gods. The expectation of pain and torment for eternity at the hands of Thanatos, the terrifying personification of death, was commonplace in ancient Greece.

Epicurus believed that the main obstacle to a fulfilled life was the irrational fear of incurring the wrath of the gods and suffering for eternity in the lair of Hades. We are so preoccupied with fearing death that we refuse to acknowledge life.

Epicurus sought to remedy this. And he did so by explaining the nature of death.

To Epicurus, the entire world was constructed entirely of atoms and empty space. Epicurus reasoned that the human soul could not be constructed of empty space. The consciousness (the soul) interacted very closely, very dynamically with the body. This would mean that the soul was made of atoms, presumably dispersed throughout the body. However these atoms would be fragile. Epicurus taught that at the time of our death, the soul would evaporate entirely.

Death marks the end of consciousness and sensation. This would mean that we would be unable to feel any emotional or physical pain. If we are no longer capable of feeling fear or pain when we decease, then it is foolish to be preoccupied with the notion of death. Epicurus believed that this fear was an obstacle to true happiness in this lifetime. If we could accept death, not ignore it or mystify it, but truly accept it as the end of being, then we could find happiness in this life.

As Epicurus said himself,
“Death does not concern us, because as long as we exist, death is not here. And once it does come, we no longer exist.”

Epicurus was viewed as dismissive of religion and therefore disliked by much of Greece. He did however gain a small but very loyal following. He founded a school of philosophy in Athens named “The Garden”, after a garden he enjoyed as a child on the island of Samos.

A stone’s throw from Plato’s Academy, The Garden was one of the first philosophical establishments that welcomed both women and slaves.

Epicureanism, the name for the teachings of Epicurus, would be revisited by contemporary ethical philosophers like John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. The teachings of Epicurus can be heard resounding from the United States’ Declaration of Independence: “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”

Epicurus lived his life free from a fear of death. He tried to teach others to pursue similar goals. He was a man who knew that he was the master of his own life, the sole captain of his ship. He inspired others to pursue scientific knowledge and to live freely.

True to his teachings, Epicurus described the last day of his life in 270 BCE as ‘a truly happy day.’

 

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“Epicurus: The Nature of Death and the Purpose of Life” was written by Van Bryan

The hero of The Iliad, Achilles is the central character and fiercest warrior in Homer’s epic. He is portrayed as being hot-headed, ferocious, and often filled with grief. Achilles as the mournful warrior is a theme that Homer recounts several times during the course of The Iliad. Combining the nature of a grieving Achilles with his supposed immorality and unrelenting rage on the battlefield makes for a complex and deeply human Greek hero.

But where did this larger than life character come from?

Achilles was supposedly the son of the water goddess, Thetis, and the mortal king Peleus. Achilles’ mother is a recurring character in The Iliad and she attempts to aid her son in numerous ways. While Homer makes no reference to Achilles as an immortal; other variants of the stories, written by the Roman poet Statius, describe how Thetis held her infant son by the heel and dipped him in the river Styx to grant him everlasting life.

As a young man Achilles was reared by the centaur Chiron, who was said to be kind, wise, and knowledgeable in the ways of medicine. While a disciple of Chiron, Achilles fed on the innards of lions and wild swines. In The Imagines, a work written by the Greek poet Philostratus of Athens, Chiron is said to have told the young Achilles:

“For although you have been taught by me thus gently the art of horsemanship, and are suited to such a horse as I, some day you shall ride on Xanthus and Balius; and you shall take many cities and slay many men.”

Xanthus and Balius were the names of the two horses that would drive Achilles’ chariot into battle. This prediction by Achilles’ teacher would be fulfilled within the pages of The Iliad.

At the onset of Homer’s epic, we learn of the wrath of Achilles as he retreats from battle, insulted by Agamemnon, commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken the woman Briseis, whom Achilles views as his rightful trophy of war, a battle conquest. (It is later revealed that Achilles actually loves Briseis, and is distraught to see her taken from him.)

Of course this sting from Agamemnon makes Achilles enraged and filled with wrath, which is the perpetual theme in the story. Achilles demonstrates his anger as he withdraws from the campaign, even as the Achaean forces lose hundreds of lives at the hands of the Trojan army and their hero, Hector.

Then Achilles’ mother, Thetis, decides to help in an usual manner. She convinces Zeus to favor the Trojans, and indeed, the tides of war shift against the forces of Agamemnon. Agamemnon soon learns that his losses are caused by dishonoring Achilles, and therefore sends Odysseus to convince the great soldier to return to battle.

At this point Achilles has become reflective, caught up in his own grief. He seems torn between attaining glory on the battlefield or living a long life in the land of his fathers. As Odysseus tries to persuade him, Achilles states:

“For my mother the goddess, silver-footed Thetis, tells me that twofold fates are bearing me toward the doom of death: if I abide here and play my part in the siege of Troy, then lost is my home-return, but my renown shall be imperishable; but if I return home to my dear native land, lost then is my glorious renown, yet shall my life long endure, neither shall the doom of death come soon upon me.”

Achilles is determined to leave Troy and return home, and attempts to convince his troops to depart with him. While he is caught in a state of uncertainty, Hector and the Trojan army have pushed the Achaean forces to the beaches and have threaten to destroy them entirely.

Facing complete annihilation, it is Achilles’ closest companion, Patroclus, who leads the Achaean forces against the Trojans… all while wearing Achilles’ armor. Achilles, himself, remains in camp while Patroclus fights valiantly, killing many Trojans while under the guise of his great, god-like friend. However Patroclus is unable to lead a successful siege against Troy. He is killed in battle by Hector, who is aided by the god Apollo.

Achilles is thrown into a state of deep mourning for his lost companion, whom he loved more than any other. Achilles laments the death of Patroclus when he states:

“I sat by the ships, a useless burden, though there are better in Assembly, so may this strife of men and gods be done with.”

Achilles’ mother, Thetis, comes to comfort her son. She convinces the god Hephaestus to craft a new shield and set of armor for her son. Achilles, now filled with rage and revenge, returns to battle to seek the death of Hector.

The wrath of Achilles is unable to be contained. He slaughters many Trojans in pursuit of his determined enemy, Hector. Achilles even fights the river god Scamander, who has become angered by the number of bodies that are choking his river. With the help of the gods Hera and Hephaestus, Achilles defeats the river deity and continues his pursuit of the Trojan prince.

The combat between Achilles and Hector has been retold in innumerable ways. The Iliad says that Achilles confronts Hector while in battle outside the walls of Troy. Hector turns and runs from the enraged warrior and circles the walls of Troy three times with Achilles in pursuit. Then the goddess Athena takes the form of Hector’s brother, Deiphobus, and convinces Hector to turn and face Achilles.

Hector swings to challenge the charging Achilles. The prince of Troy realizes that he has been tricked and that the wrath of Achilles cannot be quelled. Hector lunges at his opponent with his sword, but is quickly killed at the hands of Achilles.

As Hector dies, Achilles recounts his hatred for the Trojan. He declares, “my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me”.

Achilles further demonstrates his enmity for Hector by tying his body to the back of his chariot and dragging it around the walls of Troy.

It is not until Priam, Hector’s father, pleads with Achilles, that Hector is given funeral rites. The Iliad ends with the funeral of Hector; the downfall of Troy is soon to come.

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“The Glory and the Tragedy of Achilles” was written by Van Bryan