Category Archives: Mythology

Many ancient civilizations had fertility goddesses that played a crucial role in their religion. Rome was no exception. Perhaps the best-known fertility goddess in ancient Italy was Flora. She was an exceedingly popular goddess and every year a major festival, the Floralia, was held in her honor.

The name Flora ultimately derives from the Indo-European word for flower. It appears that the name Flora was a combination of ancient Latin and Oscan, a tongue native to southern Italy. There is also clear Greek influence in the development of this fertility deity. Some scholars believe that Flora’s true origin is a very ancient Italian fertility goddess.

There is some evidence that the Romans incorporated the worship of the goddess prior the foundation of the Republic. This was quite common, as the Romans tended to adopt gods and deities whom they believed would be useful.

There was a magnificent temple dedicated to Flora in the Circus Maximus, testifying to her importance and influence in the Roman world. She was regarded as one of the fourteen most important gods and goddesses and one of the few with her own flamen (priests or priestesses). 

Flora was associated with vegetation and flowering plants. The Romans honored her in order to ensure her continued blessing on their lands. This was crucial for an ancient people dependent on agriculture. The goddess was worshipped throughout the Roman Republic and into the Roman Empire, until the coming of Christianity. 

The Greek equivalent of Flora was Chloris. Her importance to the Romans can be seen in the many coins that bear her image. The goddess’ name has been used as the botanical term flora and is also a popular girl’s name.

There are a number of myths about Flora. Most are recorded in the work of the first-century poet Ovid, who wrote that originally the goddess was a nymph who transformed into Flora after being kissed by Zephyrus, the God of the West Wind. She was depicted as having the power to make both nature and humans more fertile.

In one account, she helped Juno to become pregnant with a child in revenge for Jupiter giving birth to Minerva from his head. Flora did this with a magical plant. In some myths, the goddess Flora was associated with Aphrodite, the goddess of desire and love.

The festival of Floralia was established around 250 BC and soon became one of the most popular in the Roman calendar. The festival was a five-day affair that fell, in our calendar, in late April and lasted until May.

According to legend, the festival was first instituted on the advice of the Sibylline Books, which were considered prophetic. For the Romans, the festival symbolized the cycle of life, birth, and death. It honored Flora and was a time of dancing, gathering of flowers and the wearing of colorful clothes.

The festival was also an occasion to hold Public Games, which were paid for from fines levied throughout the year. These Games lasted six days. The Games and the festival were both administered by the Roman magistrate, the aedile.

Generally, the Floralia opened with theatrical performances, often mimes that could even include a naked actress. Then came the first day of the Games and at night, a ceremonial sacrifice to Flora. There were great efforts made to make the theatrical events around the festivities enjoyable and in 69 AD a tightrope-walking elephant was part of the celebrations!

The festival gained popularity, prompting Julius Caesar to proclaim the Floralia an official holiday. It is considered an important social event in ancient Roman society, as it fostered a sense of community and allowed people to enjoy themselves after the hardships of winter. 

Some scholars believe that the Floralia was the inspiration for the May Day Festival, which is still popular in many Northern European countries. The goddess Flora was also reverenced by humanists in Renaissance Europe, who featured her in paintings, sculptures, and poetry.

The figure of Flora has been painted by some of the greatest painters in the Western tradition, such as Botticelli and Poussin.

Flora was an important Roman goddess. The worship and cult of Flora are testament to the importance of the natural life cycle for the ancient Romans. The festival of Floralia help unite ancient Roman society as they came together to celebrate the magnificent of nature and the joy of Spring through art and sport.

What do we mean when we talk about the “origins” of Aphrodite? There is, of course, the origin of the deity in mythology. A different type of ‘origin’, however, also exists – how various different cultures and similar, antecedent figures from other mythologies coalesced over time to create a distinctive and enduring member of the Greek pantheon. What is surprising, however, is how the mythic and ‘real world’ origins are interlinked.

In the oft repeated tale from Greek mythology, Athena is said to have sprang fully formed from the head of Zeus. Such an immediate and complete actualisation was not to be the case for her fellow Olympian, Aphrodite. In mythology, Aphrodite was said to have been born when the Titan Kronos castrated his father Uranus and cast his genitals into the sea. Aphrodite then emerged from the foam at the place in the sea where it happened. Although common, this myth has come to be understood as a way of explaining Aphrodite’s unusual name – “Aphro” being Greek for “foam”. The similarity to the word foam is probably accidental, as “foam” has no relevance to Aphrodite’s worship.

What this suggests is that the similarity to the Greek word “Aphro” may have been accidental, and the story an attempt to explain it away. What this points to, then, is that unlike Athena (with a clear connection, both philological and cultic, to the city of Athens) Aphrodite is not a goddess of Greek origin.  In fact, it appears that there is little Greek about Aphrodite.

Aphrodite is most commonly identified in myth as originating from the east, and having her home at Paphos in Cyprus. Although there is a suggestion of her being foreign, it is clear within the context of Homer that Aphrodite is nevertheless understood to be a fully-fledged Greek god and member of Mount Olympus’ pantheon. This certainty can also be assured by references to the goddess in Hesiod, particularly the Theogony.

So, as one of the Olympian gods, it is clear that she had “arrived” in Greece by the time of the composition of Homer’s poems; she is referenced across the Epic cycle, not just in Homer but in tales such as that of the Judgement of Paris. Things start to become more complex, however, in Herodotus’ Histories.

Herodotus claims that the Paphian sanctuary of Aphrodite was not the original site of the goddess’ worship. He says that this sanctuary was preceded by a cult of Aphrodite in Ashkadon in the Southern Levant, and furthermore, that the Phoenicians brought the cult to Cyrprus. Pausanias takes us back a step further. He claims the cult originated among the Assyrians, who brought it to the Phoenicians, who, in turn, brought it to Cyprus. The further we move forward with historical sources, the further back Aphrodite’s origin seems to stretch.

These various disparate cultures that make up Aphrodite – both indigenous and foreign – reflect the “melting pot” nature of Cyprus, as a barrier between East and West. There are various theories on how these cultures came together so that the goddess as we know her came to be.

The three most prominent theories are that Aphrodite was of eastern origin, and as such was an essentially Hellenized version of Ishtar. The second is that the real model and antecedent for Aphrodite was the famous Great Mother Goddess of Cyprus. The third, and most unconventional argument, is that Aphrodite was indeed initially an indigenous Greek god, that was subsequently “buried” under layers of foreign influence.

The first of these arguments is the most compelling. The eastern aspects of Aphrodite have always been emphasised. That the cult of Aphrodite would have it’s routes in the east would serve as a fascinating parallel to the Homeric assertion that the literal goddess herself originated in the east. Beyond the eastern origins, however, Aprhodite has undoubtedly a great connection with Cyprus. Indeed, she is so synonymous with Cyrpus that she is at times simply referred to as “the Cypriot.” 

When examining the origin of a female deity connected to Cyprus, one cannot leave the Mother Goddess unacknowledged. This however, brings us to a particular set of problems and debates regarding Aphrodite. Much of the Mother Goddess’ iconography centers upon fertility. The understanding of fertility in relation to the Mother Goddess in particular is not based particularly on human fertility, but rather extends to include crops and animals. It represents productivity and a good harvest. Aphrodite, on the other hand, is marked by emphasis on sexuality. The two elements, of course, have a connection, but the question of emphasis remains an important one.

The final argument remains controversial. It does however bring to bear one of the many complexities when looking into these origins. There is undoubtedly an element of mixture that occurs, and within that it may be difficult to identify the constituent elements.

Regardless of the specifics, centuries after this process could have been seen to have ended – and approximately two millennia after Homer and Hesiod showed us her “complete” form – the image of Aphrodite may still be influenced and altered in different ways. The goddess is reinvented time and again across various novels, TV shows, and films, and our cultural understanding of her shifts with them.

Much like how she is shown in perhaps her most famous interpretation, Botticelli’s painting, the Birth of Venus, the goddess perpetually exists in the moment of being born, and is forever new.

Ancient religion was very dynamic and evolved over the centuries. One of the most interesting examples of this is the Triad of Artemis, or the Triple Goddess, wherein three goddesses were conflated or grouped together. These three goddesses were Artemis, Selene and Hecate.

The group is frequently known in modern times as the Artemis Triad.  But in Graeco-Roman civilization, the Triad was known by a variety of different names.  Artemis is one of the Olympian gods and was the patron deity of hunting, wildlife, virginity, and the Moon. She was revered as the protector of women and children and for her healing powers. She was a daughter of Zeus and was also known as the virgin goddess.

Selene (or Cynthia) was another lunar deity and was believed to embody the Moon.  She was the daughter of Titans, and her siblings included Helios, god of the sun and Eos, the dawn. Selene was thought to drive her silver chariot across the skies at night, which represented the moon. Her partner was Endymion with whom she had up to 50 daughters. She was often represented with horns, which are thought to represent the Moon in its waning crescent phase.

Hecate was an ancient Greek goddess, and she is associated with borders, barriers and crossroads, as well as night, magic and witchcraft. She was deeply associated with the world of spirits, ghosts, and the Underworld. Many sources depict witches worshipping her. Originally, she may have been a Chthonic goddess of non-Greek origin.

In Classical and Hellenistic religion, this trio of goddesses were very popular and appear to have been part of the public religion of Rome in particular. They were often worshipped by women; they were seen as being very well-disposed to mothers and their children. Artemis was one of the most popular goddesses in the Hellenic world, and there were many temples and festivals held in her honour. Similarly, there were shrines to Hecate at many entrances. 

The Romans adopted many Greek deities including this trio of goddesses. They worshipped Selene under the name of Luna, Artemis was known as Diana, and Hecate was referred to as Trivia. At some point, the Romans began to conflate the three goddesses, possibly in the Republican era based on images on coins. This was because the three shared many characteristics. Most prominently, all three were female and associated with the moon. They were thought to protect or favor those who invoked them. The Triad is part of a tradition of Triple-deities that are common in mythologies around the globe. Some believe that the grouping of the Goddesses in a Triad reflects the influence of Celtic Mythology, but this is controversial.

Much of what we know about the Triad of goddesses comes from Roman-era period from the (1^st-5^th century AD). References to the goddesses are made by Seneca the Younger, as well as the epic poets Statius and Nonnus.  From these we can see that the Triad of Artemis-Selene-Hecate was often worshipped in groves, which were believed to be sacred to Artemis. It appears that the Triad was also worshipped at shrines sacred to Hecate and Selene. The Triad was believed to have the combined attributes and powers of all three of the goddesses. In the Roman era, they were regarded as the protector of travellers, and associated with the world of the spirits. In the tragedy Phaedra by Seneca, the heroine prays to the Triad to make her beloved return her love. 

It should be noted that the worship of the Triad did not mean that the individual goddesses lost their identity or role in Graeco-Roman religion. They were often known as Hecate the triple goddess, or three-faced Selene and worshipped as a group because of their close-associations and were not viewed as a single divinity.

It appears that the Triad was very popular with magicians and those who practised magic, which was ubiquitous in the ancient world. This is evident from surviving papyri that have been unearthed in the deserts of Egypt, which record magical incantations and spells. There are many references to Hecate in her triple aspect in surviving Graeco-Roman magical papyri, and specific references to her as being part of the Triad. Hecate was associated with magic and witches, while Selene and Artemis were associated with the moon and night. The trio my have been conflated and grouped together to make a spell more efficacious and this became a convention.

Triads of gods were very common in the ancient world. Hecate-Selene-Artemis were not aspects of the same god but were worshipped as a group because of their similarities. The conflation of the deities was most common during the Roman era especially during the Empire. The triad was very popular, and it appears that based on ancient magical papyri, that the group of goddesses were important in witchcraft and magic.

Burkert, Walter (2000). Greek Religion. Blackwell Publishers: London.

We all know January is the first month of the year. Many may even know the month is named after the Roman god Janus. Yet what do we know about this mysterious, two-headed figure?

Janus was the god of entrances, thresholds, and transition. Yet unlike many other Roman gods, which had Greek counterparts (the Roman Venus and the Greek Aphrodite, for instance) Janus was a god that was unique to the Romans. An understanding of this god, therefore, can help us to understand the Romans more distinctly.

Janus was probably an Indo-European deity and possibly of Etruscan origin. The name Janus probably comes from the old Latin word for entrance. The worship of this god was especially important in the public religion of Rome. Rites and ceremonies were held in his honor, and they were overseen by the priest known as the ‘King of the Sacred.’  The Romans believed that he was one of the first Kings of Rome, but even they knew little about him and his cult was very mysterious.

In the fragmentary myths that have survived, he was the embodiment of change and transformation. He is described in some sources as a creator deity who attended the birth of the Roman Gods, such as Jupiter. In another ancient account, Janus arrived in Italy by ship, and was a God of agriculture. Janus was often shown to be the assistant of Saturn and helped him to create a Golden Age. In some, sources he married a nymph, and their son was Tiberinus, after whom the River Tiber was named. The deity of transition was also responsible for the calendar.

The worship of the god was thought to derive from the time of Romulus. There were many ceremonial gateways in Rome, known as Jani. They were seen as auspicious for entrances and leave-takings. Good or bad luck became attached to a person or army as they moved through these gateways. The most famous gateway in Rome was the Janus Geminus. This was the most important shrine dedicated to Janus. A temple on the Janiculum hill was believed to be the place where the god resided, but this temple has never been found by archaeologists. It was a square bronze structure with two doors, one closed inward and the other outwards. This was regarded as the symbolic threshold for first the Roman Republic and later the Empire.

The Romans believed that they should be kept closed in times of peace and open in times of war. The war-like Romans rarely closed the gates for an extended period.  They were closed by Augustus and Nero, who used it for propaganda purposes in the First Century AD. The Salii priests would close and open the doors. In the early Roman Republic this would signify the beginning or end of the season for war. In ancient agricultural societies, this was only conducted during the Spring and Summer. The citizens of the Eternal City believed that Janus oversaw the start and end of wars but was not technically a ‘god of war’.

Janus evolved over time, and he was also associated with travel, trade, and sailing. Many merchants celebrate the cult of Janus as a result. Janus was also summoned at the beginning of any public ceremony, such as the Senate opening. He was also honored at significant moments in life, for example weddings, births, and the harvest. Private citizens would seek Janus’ protection as they crossed the threshold in his home.  In myth and art, the god was shown as bearded and having two faces looking different ways. This expressed the liminal nature of this enigmatic deity.

Janus was associated with the calendar and time. His association with transitions meant that he was often seen as a god of time. Janus was especially associated with celebrations around the New Year in mid-winter. Janus’ main feast was seemingly on January 9^th, although a number of scholars dispute this. The god was believed to oversee the transition from one year to the next. Because of this, the Romans named the first month in their calendar after him. Later cultures adopted the Roman calendar and took over several of their month’s names. Today the month of January is named after the mysterious Janus.

The Janiculum was eventually converted into a Christian Church. It seems that small groups of pagans continued to worship the god and during the Gothic Wars (sixth century AD), the doors of Janus were opened again. There were several medieval scholars who believed that witches and wizards worshipped Janus in their ceremonies.

Janus has no real equivalent in Greek religion, and he is a uniquely Roman god. They worship him because they were preoccupied with the principles of transformation and transitions. The various cults dedicated to Janus were all thought by Romans to help to ensure that any transitions were not dangerous and hazardous. In particular, Romans sought his help to ensure that the transition from peace to war, and war to peace were successfully managed.

Janus offers us an insight into the worldview of the Romans. He was worshipped because he helped them to control changes and transitions and allowed them to understand time and the nature of the world. For the average Roman, the god personified important forces that that he wanted to control. In particular Janus was associated with the successful commencement and conclusion of war, which was critical for the martial Romans.

As a figure representing thresholds and transitions, there’s perhaps no more fitting legacy than inspiring the name of the year’s first month.

Ferguson, John (1985). The religions of the Roman Empire. Cornell, CA: Cornell University Press.

He is a towering figure of ancient myth.

He fought at Troy and appears in the Iliad. Yet he is remembered for something much greater. He was seen by the Romans as a paragon of virtue, and one of the founders of their city. One of the world’s most enduring and influential pieces of literature, the Aeneid, was written about him. But who was Aeneas?

The Greek version of Aeneas is related in two sources: the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite and the Iliad. According to legends, he was the son of Anchises, a Trojan royal prince. His mother was the Goddess of Love, Aphrodite (Venus in Roman mythology). Aphrodite had made Zeus fall in love with a human woman; in retaliation, he made her fall in love with a human too, namely Anchises. Aeneas was then born on Mount Ida, and was at first raised by nymphs before being taken to his father in Troy.

In ancient Greek, he was known as Αἰνείας (Aineías). Aeneas is a Latin form of the Greek. It has been speculated that the Greek name Αἰνείας meant originally ‘terrible’ or agony. This could refer to his martial prowess, or relate to the fact that his mother predicted his life of struggle when he was born.

In the Iliad, Aeneas is a fairly minor figure, but he is still portrayed as a noble warrior who is notably pious. At first in the epic, he holds back from the fighting, because he is angry that he has not received recognition from Priam. Later, he leads a mission to retrieve the body of his brother-in-law Alcathous. He is shown as a commander of a group of Trojan allies. During his time in Troy, Aeneas is rescued twice by the gods because he is destined to have a great future…

The legend of Aeneas was later adopted by several Roman writers. The Trojan hero was popular with Romans because he embodied qualities that they valued such as ‘pietas’ or commitment to native land, family and duty. The best-known version of the myth of Aeneas is told in Virgil’s epic poem, the Aeneid, one of the greatest works in all of Classical literature.

In Roman mythology, the focus is on Aeneas and his adventures after the destruction of Troy. During the fall of the city, Aeneas leads his family and a small group to safety. He then leads them on a mission to find a new home for the surviving Trojans. They attempted to find a new city several times, but each time they failed. Eventually, Aeneas’ father Anchises died in Sicily. Later, Juno sends a storm that drives the Trojans to the shores of Carthage.

There, Aeneas has a six-year affair with the Phoenician Queen Dido. Committed to his duty, he eventually leaves Dido to find a new home for his people. In despair, Dido commits suicide. After arranging funeral games in Sicily, Aeneas lands on the western shores of Italy with his small band. At this time, Aeneas journeys to the Underworld and meets Dido and his father, who predicts that he would establish a great city (Rome).

Returning from the Underworld, Aeneas continued his journeys. The King of the Latins welcomed the Trojans and allowed them to settle in his territory. Aeneas became engaged to the Latin King’s daughter, Lavinia. This leads to a war with Turnus, the Rutulian King and his allies. In this bloody war, Aeneas emerges victorious. The story makes clear that Aeneas won because his cause was right. At this point in the Aeneid, the story of Aeneas ends abruptly, possibly because of the death of Virgil. The story of Aeneas was completed by writers such as Livy and Ovid. After his victory over Turnus, Aeneas founds the city of Lavinium, named after his wife Lavinia. The hero had many descendants. One of them became King of Alba Longa, and was the progenitor of Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome. After his death, Venus had Jupiter make him immortal and he ascended into the heavens to live like a god.

The myth of Aeneas was of great cultural significance in Roman civilization. In ancient societies, myths were used to tell the history of peoples and to explain their origin. The story of Aeneas and his adventures was used to explain the foundation of Rome and justify its imperialism. Similarly, the tragic love affair between Dido and Aeneas was used to explain the enmity between Carthage and Rome. Aeneas was seen as the embodiment of Roman virtues, especially his pietas. The story of the Trojan prince was used to promote social and cultural ideas that had come to be considered essential for Roman greatness. They were also instrumental in teaching and reinforcing Roman ideas on morality and also justifying its empire as something moral and noble.

The stories of Aeneas demonstrate the power of myths and how they can be adapted. The Trojan was a minor figure in the Trojan War. Yet, when the Romans adopted him, he became something of a ‘national hero.’ Aeneas and his adventures were a common subject in Roman literature and art, and the legends of the Trojan were used to explain the history of Rome.

Elliot, A., 2013. Aeneas. Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics, 20(3), pp.1-8.

Stahl, H.P., 1981. Aeneas—An’Unheroic’Hero? Arethusa, 14(1), pp.157-177.

Greek mythology offers an abundance of tales, many of which have helped inspire modern-day culture and storytelling. Needless to say, Greek mythology is compelling, diverse and not for the faint-of-heart, so it makes for great reading material. However, if you want to get your fix of Greek mythology in a format that is easy to fit in around a busy schedule, read on for my top ten Greek mythology podcast recommendations.

1) Let’s Talk About Myths, Baby!

This podcast aims to retell Greek and Roman mythology in a way that is appropriate for a modern audience: sarcastic, irreverent and casual. Covering monsters, heroes, gods and goddesses, this retelling of the ancient world focuses on the unparalleled minds of ancient Greece and the wild escapades of the gods.

2) Mythunderstood: A Greek Mythology Podcast

Learn from host Paul as he teaches his co-host Sarah, a comedy writer, all he knows about Greek mythology. Tune in if you enjoy banter and hilarity with an educational twist.

3) Garner’s Greek Mythology

It’s a commonly held belief that ancient Greek gods were only myths, but what if that’s wrong? Best-selling author and mythologist Patrick Garner discusses the major Greek deities, offering little known insights about who they were and who they became.

4) Tales Of The Night Sky

If you’re looking for something a little different, this audio drama could fit the bill. The tales are based on Greco-Roman myths surrounding the constellations in our skies and, as you would expect, are filled with tragedy, heroics, violence and injustice. This is the perfect podcast to listen to while looking out at the night sky during a bout of insomnia, so grab a cup of coffee (decaf, of course) and get cozy.

Olympians had a reputation for being mercurial, petty and vengeful, so it makes sense that there’s an entire podcast dedicated to the misfortune of Greeks who attracted their attention and the havoc unleashed upon their lives.

6) Greeking Out

This is billed as a podcast for children, but don’t let that put you off. While this podcast does focus on renditions of classic tales that have been tweaked for young minds, it can easily be enjoyed by people of all ages who are interested in ancient myths made accessible.

7) Greek Mythology Retold

Created by Janell Rhiannon, author of the Homeric Chronicles, a brilliant adult retelling of the Trojan War, this podcast explores the research that went into the series and the various surprises she uncovered. The aim of this podcast is to highlight female voices of the Trojan War era, offering a more diverse perspective on this fascinating, but often heavily masculinized, topic.

8) Legendary Passages – Greek/Roman Myths

Simple but effective, this podcast offers short summaries and readings of various classical myths. At only 10 to 15 minutes long, each episode is a bitesize chunk that can be easily digested on your lunch break or while doing chores.

9) The Heroes, Or Greek Fairytales For My Children

Originally published in 1855, Charles Kingsley’s collection of three stories (Perseus, The Argonauts and Theseus) is now available in audiobook format. While the author intended for the heroes and adventures in this book to inspire a sense of nobility and integrity in the children who read it, the work has been deemed as culturally important and a significant contribution to our knowledge of ancient civilization.

10) Rambling About Greek Mythology

Informal, fun, and easy to relax into, this podcast focuses on Nikhil Ranjan sharing his knowledge of Greek mythology with everyone. The content of this podcast is drawn from a variety of sources, including original works, some of which have their own episodes. If you enjoy podcasts which lean more towards content than analysis, this might be one for you.

I hope this list has given you some inspiration and encouraged you to dive into a new podcast to brush up on all things Greek. Wherever your particular interests lie, there is a whole range of podcasts and audiobooks out there for you, so get exploring and get listening!