Category Archives: Wars

Battle of Marathon

by Van Bryan August 27, 2013

The Battle of Marathon

The battle of Marathon has, for millenia now, been firmly planted within the annals of western history. A decisive battle, a clash of cultures, the narrative describes an outnumbered Athenian army staying off the Persian invaders who would see the Greek civilization consumed within their empire. And as we gaze through the looking glass of time, thousands of years into the past, what began as a simple military engagement is now often considered a philosophical war between two cultures. The war for the West, that is what some believe Marathon to be. And if Greece is the cradle of western culture, could Marathon be the stance to defend it?

It all began with the Ionian revolution and Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, who would resign his tyranny and accept a constitutional position in order to dismantle Persian control of the Greek city states in Asia Minor. This was largely done without bloodshed and Aristagoras would attempt to gain support for his endeavor from mainland Greece. After being denied by the Spartan king, Cleomenes, Aristagoras would find support from the Athenian government who viewed the massive Persian empire with suspicion and concern. The Athenians dispatched several naval war vessels to aid the Ionian Greeks in this rebellion.

It would do little good. The rebellion would fail miserably with a decisive naval defeat at the island of Lade, near Miletus. Aristagoras’ city would fall. The women and children of Miletus became slaves and the men that were left alive were expelled from their lands. Early in the campaign, the capital city of western Persia, Sardis, had been burned to the ground. And while the Greeks mourned for the loss of Miletus, the birthplace of the philosopher Thales, King Darius of Persia would not soon forget the destruction of Sardis. It was too late for reconciliation. War was coming.

After a failed invasion through northern Greece in 492 BCE, King Darius made plans to dispatch a large invading force across the Aegean to overthrow Athens and capture mainland Greece. Mindful of the fate of Miletus, many city-states, including Thebes and Argos, submitted to the Persian king. It was only Athens and Sparta who stood firmly in defiance.

When the heralds of King Darius appeared at the gates of Athens and Sparta, the messengers were not only denied, but were promptly killed. Legend has it that soldiers of Sparta threw the emissaries into a deep well when the heralds suggested that the Spartans surrender. Did they scream “this is Sparta!” right before they dropped kicked the men into the abyss? We may never know, but I like to think so.

Helmet of Miltiades

Meanwhile, Athens had a decision to make. The Athenians would be vastly outnumbered if they decided to face the Persians. We do not know the exact numbers, but we do know that Persia possessed a much larger infantry as well as superior cavalry and archers. It was at this time that the Stratego, Miltiades, would play a critical role in the salvation of Athens. Miltiades, a man who spent much of his life ruling in a remote military outpost in the Chersonese, would return to Athens in 493 BCE. He was promptly accused of having been a tyrant during his days as ruler, and was promptly put on trial .

It is difficult to imagine why Athens would concern themselves with one of their own citizens tyrannizing abroad, especially with a massive Persian army at their doorstep. It is not unreasonable to believe Herodotus when he tells us that the persecution of Miltiades originated from the mans political enemies.

Miltiades was a gifted general and had served in the Persian army while living in Asia Minor under Persian control. He would have been familiar with Persian tactics and was most qualified to lead a defense against the invaders. Perhaps it was the thought of Athens burning to the ground that persuaded the Athenians to acquit Miltiades, it would appear they had bigger fish to fry. Miltiades was allowed to attempt to persuade the Polemarch, Callimachus to allow him to go to war. Herodotus offers a stirring rendition of this speech.

“…It is up to you right now, to enslave Athens or to make her free, and to leave for all future generations of humanity a memorial to yourself such as not even Harmodius and Aristogiton have left. Right now, Athens is in the most perilous moment of her history. Hippias has already shown her what she will suffer if she bows down to the Medes, but if the city survives, she can become the foremost city in all Greece…” -Herodotus (The Histories)

Athens would accept Miltiades into their army and make plans to confront the Persians. Early one morning in late September of 490 BCE, the Athenian army assembled on a hill overlooking where the Persian forces had landed on the beaches of Marathon. Knowing they were severely outnumbered, Miltiades concentrated his forces in a narrow pass that would block the Persian advance to Athens. Layers of bronze shields overlapped among the Greek soldiers and created a phalanx formation that was capable of repelling waves of enemies.

The Persian army advanced and found themselves crushed against the shields of the better equipped, better prepared Athenian army. With the advantage of longer spears, sturdy shields, and superb tactical placement, the Athenians managed to continuously push back the Persian advance.

The Persian army meanwhile was improperly equipped for such warfare. Many infantrymen possessed wooden shields or shields constructed from wicker. With the Athenian army confined in a narrow corridor, the Persian cavalry was ineffective and unable to outflank the Greeks. After several days of battle, the Greeks pushed the invaders back to their ships. The Persian army would suffer heavy casualties and be forced to return home.

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Tags: Athens, Darius, marathon, Miltiades, Persia, Themistocles

Greco-Persian Wars

by Van Bryan July 17, 2013

ancient helmet of a Greek hoplite

The Persian wars were a series of engagements between the massive Persian empire and the various city states of ancient Greece over the course of 40 years (499-449 BCE). The tension between the Greeks and the empire of Persia is believed to have been a result of the violent uprising known as the Ionian Revolt in 499 BCE. At the time, the empire of Persia, and it’s ruler Darius the Great, had taken control of several civilizations in Asia minor, leaving tyrants to rule the various cities on behalf of the empire of Persia.

The city of Ionia would rebel against the Persians with the assistance of Athens. The Ionia revolt, although promising at first, would become something of a debacle. After one major offensive against the Persians, the rebels would be continuously put on the defensive for the rest of the military engagement. Persia would effectively crush the revolution and then set its sights across the Aegean to Athens. Darius the Great intended to punish the Greeks for their support of the failed revolution.

The battle of Marathon is often considered the military engagement that would define the first Persian invasion of Greece. The Persian army landed at the bay of Marathon with the intent of marching to Athens, some 26 miles away, and destroying the city as punishment for their defiance of the empire. Athens, under the guidance of the general Miltiades , would march their smaller army to Marathon and engage the Persian forces before they had a chance to attack Athens.

The Greeks used massive bronze shields to repel enemy soldiers

The battle of Marathon would be something of a strategic miracle for the Athenian army. Miltiades arranged his army in a narrow valley along the route to Athens with the intent of blocking the Persian advance. The narrow corridor would prevent the Persians from implementing their cavalry, which is often considered the source of their military dominance. The Persian infantry was now forced to march head on into a disciplined Athenian army with bronze shields and steeled determination.

The Greeks would see victory at Marathon. Their tactics would allow them to slaughter the approaching invaders and eventually force them back to their ships and across the Aegean sea. Miltiades sent a messenger to Athens to tell of the great victory. The man is said to have run the 26 miles, reached Athens and declared “Nike!”, the Greek word for ‘victory. He then promptly died in the city square. This story is the origin for the modern act of “running a marathon”.

Athens rejoiced in this great victory, convinced that the Persians were defeated permanently. However there was one man who knew that the war was really just beginning. A general at Marathon, this man would lay the foundation for the Greek defensive against the imminent second invasion. His name was Themistocles.

The Greek general, Themistocles

Themistocles was an Athenian politician who had risen to great political influence during the early years of Athenian democracy. He navigated the political landscape, destroying his opponents and continuously pushing his agenda of building the Athenian navy. Themistocles was convinced that the key to success against the next Persian invasion would be a dominant navy, and he would do anything to ensure that Athens was ready.

At this time, around 490 BCE, the son of Darius the Great was inheriting his fathers empire and preparing his army for a massive invasion of Greece. His name was Xerxes, and while Themistocles was desperately trying to bolster his navy; Xerxes was amassing the largest army that the ancient world had ever seen.

In 481 BCE Xerxes sent ambassadors across Greece demanding that all city-states submit to his empire. Sparta and Athens refused and, along with several smaller Greek cities, would form an alliance against their common enemy. The city-states of Greece, especially Athens and Sparta, had generally held a tradition of fighting and killing each other up until this point. The alliance therefore was a rather remarkable occurrence. Perhaps in the shadow of complete annihilation, the Greeks swallowed their pride and aligned themselves as one.

in 480 BCE, Xerxes marched his army across modern day Europe and then intended to march south towards Greece and Athens. The allies took up defensive positions in an attempt to block the advance of an army that outnumbered them 50 to 1. King Leonidas of Sparta, along with his 300 Spartans and some 7000 allied soldiers, took up position at the pass of Thermopylae. Meanwhile Themistocles and the newly built Athenian navy attempted to block the Persians by sea at the strait of Artemisium.

Leonidas at Thermopylae, by Jacques Louis David, 1814. This is a juxtaposition of various historical and legendary elements from the Battle of Thermopylae.

The allies used the same tactic that Miltiades had used at the battle of Marathon. By forcing the Persian army into a bottleneck, the smaller Greek army stood a chance at holding their ground. Similarly Themistocles hoped to outmaneuver the massive Persian ships by forcing them into the narrow strait of Artemisium. Both Leonidas and Themistocles battle bravely for two days. However Leonidas was killed along with most of the Spartans warrior and Xerxes was allowed to pass through Thermopylae.

The battle of Thermopylae and the movements to Salamis

There was nothing stopping the massive Persian army and they marched onto Athens unchallenged. Themistocles had ordered the evacuation of Athens. Using the allied navy for support, Athens was evacuated and the citizens were transported to the island of Salamis, some thirty miles away. With nobody to defend the city, Xerxes raided Athens and set it to fire. It would appear that defeat was close at hand for the Greeks.

Themistocles would remain resolute. Using a clever form of subterfuge he sent an messenger to Xerxes explaining that the allied navy was harbored near Salamis and had fallen into chaos. Xerxes, hoping for a quick victory, ordered his navy to pursue the Greeks into the strait of Salamis. Instead of disorganized ships, the Persians were greeted by highly organized war vessels prepared for battle. The Greek navy broadsided the Persian fleet and utilized their maneuverability to outflank the cumbersome Persian ships. Within the narrow confines of the strait, the Persian armada fell into chaos.

The Greeks would see victory at Salamis and Xerxes himself would leave Greece not long after. Over the next several years the Greeks continued to engage the Persian army. However this time, the allies were on the offensive. Battling the Persian army across the Asia minor, the once invaders slowly retreated all the way back across the Aegean. The Greeks had staved off the second invasion, Greece would remain unconquered.

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Tags: 300, Athens, Leonidas, Persia, Sparta, Themistocles, Xerxes

The Rise of Themistocles (Part 3)

by Van Bryan June 25, 2013

Click the links to read “The Rise of Themistocles” part 1 and part 2

By 480 BCE, the Athenian general and statesman, Themistocles, had eliminated his political opponents and had been squarely planted as the most influential man in Athens. Rising through the political ranks of a young democratic city, Themistocles had taken great strides to prepare his country for war against the imminent Persian invasion. With coordination from the other prominent city-states of Greece, an alliance had been formed against the Persians, with the Athenian navy constituting the majority of the alliance’s naval power.

Although Themistocles had taken great strides to build the Athenian navy, he was never officially put in charge of commanding the naval forces. It was the Spartan commander Eurybiades who would eventually be confirmed as the leader. The Athenian soldiers were hesitant to submit to a Spartan commander, especially when Sparta contributed so few naval ships. However, Themistocles convinced his countrymen to put aside their doubts and follow the command of Eurybiades. This act of humility and wisdom would allow the naval vessels to unite, which would be necessary if the Greeks were to stand a chance against Xerxes and the numerous Persian ships.

Leonidas at Thermopylae
by. Jacques-Louis David

The original strategy devised by the Greek allies was to block the Persian advance at the vale of Tempe on the border of Thessaly. However it quickly became apparent that the Greeks would be easily outmaneuvered if they took up a position there. It was proposed by Themistocles that the Greeks halt the Persian advance by taking position at the narrow strait of Thermopylae .

Ground soldiers, including Leonidas and the famous 300 Spartans, would block the advance of the Persian army by land, while Themistocles would maneuver the Greek navy into the strait of Artemisium to block the Persian ships by sea. However, in order for this tactic to be successful, Themistocles knew he would need the full power of the Athenian navy. He would have to have every able bodied man on a warship. Athens would be left defenseless.

Themistocles feared that Athens might fall to the invaders

It is not known exactly how Themistocles convinced Athens to deplete the city of its warriors, what stirring words he must have conjured to allow his city-state to hand itself over to his ambitions. All we know is that Athens would narrowly approve Themistocles’ measure. Athens would prepare all of its forces for war, leaving the city unprotected. There was no turning back; the future of Greece was now lay in the hands of Themistocles.

By August of 480 BCE the Persian army was swiftly approaching Thessaly. The allied navy sailed to Artemisium while the hoplites made their stand at Thermopylae. It is said that once the Spartan naval commander Eurybiades saw the size of the Persian navy he quickly proposed to retreat, assuming that the enemy was unassailable. The locals, fearing that if the Greeks retreated they would be left to suffer the wrath of the Persians, offered a bribe to Themistocles. Themistocles shared the riches with Eurybiades and convinced him to stay and engage the Persian fleet.

The allied fleet fought bravely. However they were greatly outnumbered by the immense Persian Navy. Plutarch writes about the encounter:

“There the sons of Athens set

The stone that freedom stands on yet.”

“With numerous tribes from Asia’s region brought

The sons of Athens on these waters fought;

Erecting, after they had quelled the Mede,

To Artemis this record of the deed.” -Plutarch, from “Themistocles”

the allies lost many lives at the battle of Artemisium

The bloody encounter took many lives. The allies especially lost numerous ships. It was then that word reach Themistocles that Leonidas and the soldiers of Thermopylae had fallen. The land pass to Greece was now available to the Persians. Themistocles and Eurybiades ordered a retreat. The Persians continued to advance, the Greeks needed a new strategy.

While the battle of Artemisium had been costly for the allies, it had granted Themistocles a new insight on how to wage war. The Persians had a larger navy, yes. However they only took full advantage of this when they were allowed vast, open water in which to wage war. If their ships were forced into close combat with the Athenians, then there might be a chance for Themistocles and the Greeks. However, if this were to work Themistocles would need to act quickly, the Persians were advancing.

With a passage into Greece, Xerxes and the Persian army intended to march to Athens to overrun the city. An evacuation was ordered and all the citizens abandoned their homes to flee from the incoming invaders. Plutarch describes the evacuation of Athens:

“When the whole city of Athens were going on board, it afforded a spectacle worthy alike of pity and admiration, to see them thus send away their fathers and children before them, and, unmoved with their cries and tears, passed over into the island.” -Plutarch, from “Themistocles”

While the Persians army took the city of Athens, the Athenian ships were harbored in the gulf of Corinth near the island of Salamis. It was at this time of peril that Themistocles did something rather remarkable. He called for the return of his political rival Aristides, who had been banished from Athens not long before. With his former enemy now at his side, Themistocles devised a plan to strike a blow to the Persians.

Xerxes believes his navy unstoppable, he watches the battle of Salamis

Themistocles sent a messenger to Xerxes. This messenger told the Persian commander that the Greeks were harbored in the isthmus of Corinth and that they intended to flea. The messenger told Xerxes that he could crush the Greek navy if he would only pursue them into the narrow strait. Xerxes was pleased to hear this news and gave immediate orders for a small group of his ships to block all straits and passageways that might allow the Greeks to escape.

Themistocles was able to lead the Persians into a trap

As soon as day broke Xerxes placed his throne of gold high above the straits so that he might witness a great victory by his warships. The Persian navy sailed into the narrow straits off the coast of the island of Salamis. They expected to find a scattered allied navy intending to flee. Instead they were greeted with the full force of the Greek warships ready to do battle. Themistocles had led Xerxes to believe that the Allies were weak. The overconfidence of Xerxes allowed himself to lead his massive army into a crowded isthmus where the Greeks were waiting to do battle.

The allies had achieve a strategic advantage over the Persians. The enemy fleet was large and cumbersome. Their ships were hard to navigate in the narrow passageway. The allied ships were small and maneuverable, they were able to attack the Persian ships before they even had an opportunity to respond.

The battle was won decisively by the allies and the Persian fleet retreated. Xerxes had been defeated.

The Persians would retreat and Xerxes himself would return to Asia, leaving his generals in charge to finish the conquest. The Athenians returned to Athens and began to rebuild. The immediate threat of the Persians had been squashed. Themistocles had saved his homeland, he had protected Greece in its time of need.

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Tags: Athens, Plutarch, Sparta, Themistocles, Xerxes

The Rise of Themistocles (part 2)

by Van Bryan June 22, 2013

In a previous article we discussed one of Greece’s most notable and successful general and statesman. It was none other than, Themistocles, who from early on seemed bound for great deeds. During the time of early democracy in Athens he appealed to the average citizen and consequentially wielded great influence in Athenian politics. As one of the first great Athenian politicians, he had several ambitions for his city and for Greece.

Themistocles was a continual supporter of the Athenian navy. It was his belief that the future warfare of Greece would rely heavily on naval power and Themistocles was determined to wield the greatest navy in all of Greece. In 483 BCE large silver deposits were found in a nearby Athenian mine and Themistocles used this as an opportunity to create his navy. He proposed that the silver be used to build 200 Athenian war ships known as triremes.

To Themistocles, this was the destiny of Athens. However, not everyone agreed.

Aristides would often be remembered as Themistocles’ greatest rival. A man born into moderate fortune, he often sided with the aristocracy of ancient Athens. He first gained attention with his decisive leadership as a General at the battle of Marathon. He entered politics around the same time as Themistocles and gained a reputation as being fair, honest, and genuinely concerned with the well being of Athens. He was given the nickname “The Just” and was called by Herodotus as being:

“the best and most honourable man in Athens”- Herodotus, Histories

Aristides was seen as being starkly contrasted to Themistocles. He was considered a man of humility which was rather different from Themistocles, who reveled in personal luxuries and political advancement. Additionally, Aristides looked to maintain a conservative policy and took the stance that Athens should strive to become a land based military power. This went directly against Themistocles’ dream of building a formidable navy; it was an obstacle that Themistocles would be forced to confront.

The tension between Themistocles and Aristides would come to a head in 482 BCE. A rather unique part of Athenian democracy was that the citizens would be allowed to regularly vote to exile a politician of their choosing. The citizens would be told to write the name of a politician on a shard of pottery, and whichever politician received the most votes for exile would be ostracized from Athens for 10 years.

Piece of pottery with the name “Aristides” written

This was done as a check to ensure that wealthy or influential families did not overpower the needs of the citizens. However the rivalry between Themistocles and Aristides was so prominent that the vote of exile essentialy came down to one of the two politicians.

The story goes that an illiterate citizen approached Aristides during the vote for exile. Not knowing who Aristides was, the man asked the politician to write on the shard the name “Aristides”. Aristides asked the man if the politician had ever wronged him. The man is said to have replied:

“I don’t even know him, but it irritates me to hear everybody call him ‘the just'”.

Aristides then wrote his own name on the shard.

Themistocles’ rival was banished from Athens. With no more decisive political opponents blocking him, Themistocles was allowed the opportunity to build his navy. The Athenians were very aware of the imminent Persian invasion and even voted to build more war ships than Themistocles had originally asked for. Athens was now the dominant naval power in all of Greece, and with the Persians growing ever bolder to invade, preparations had to be made.

In 481 BCE, a congress of 30 Greek city-states met to discuss an alliance. All of Greece was in danger of the massive Persian army, which led to a swift agreement among the Greek leaders to band together. At the forefront of this alliance was Athens and Sparta, the cities with the largest navy and land army, respectively. With all the Greek city-states banded together and no political opponents to oppose him, Themistocles became the most powerful man in Athens.

The invasion was coming and Themistocles would be ready.

continue reading here

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Tags: Aristides, Athenian navy, Athens, Herodotus, Plutarch, Themistocles, triremes

The Rise of Themistocles (Part 1)

by Van Bryan June 20, 2013

The Athenian General Themistocles

While the Greco-Persian wars have remained a topic of sincere interest for those of us who study the ancients, it can be said that an undo amount of attention has been paid to particular engagements… while the rest of history has remained obscure. The Spartans and their heroic stand at Thermopylae captured the imagination of modern society and spawned several recreations in popular media. The Spartans were lucky enough to have two films and a graphic novel created in their honor, even if they did have to prance around in leather speedos.

However, perhaps we should also remember what happened after Thermopylae. The Persian invaders certainly didn’t throw down their weapons and send 100,000 men home. In fact, they continued their march through Greece, perhaps stepping gingerly over the fresh corpses of Leonidas and his men. And if it weren’t for the steeled determination of the Greeks to repel the invaders, they might have conquered the entire known world.

At the front of the Greek forces was one Athenian general who had risen from poverty to power. It can be said that ancient Greece owed much thanks to the brave Themistocles.

The Greek historian Herodotus as well as the Roman essayist, Plutarch, wrote extensively about the life and achievements of Themistocles. The first interesting thing about Themistocles was that he was not born into wealth. Themistocles was the son of Neocles, a very obscure Athenian citizen of modest means. His mother was believed to have been an immigrant, and not much else is really known about the early life of Themistocles. However Plutarch tells that he grew up as an outsider, living in an immigrant district of Athens, never really being accepted by the other Athenian children.

It was claimed by Plutarch that he was a voracious learner. While other children were playing, Themistocles committed himself to his studies and training. As a child, he was so intent on improving himself that his teachers would regularly tell him:

“You, my boy, will be nothing insignificant, but great one way or another, either for good or for evil.” -Plutarch, from “Themistocles”

Themistocles grew up during a time of societal upheaval in ancient Athens. There had previously been several years of unstable rule by various leaders including the tyrant Peisistratos, who died in 527 BCE. After several failed rulers, Athens eventually resorted to a new form of government, one where the power would be invested in the people. It was the beginning of democracy, and Themistocles was poised to be its first great politician.

Themistocles gained popularity in Athens by painting himself as a man of the people. He campaigned in the streets of Athens the way nobody had ever done before. He toured the taverns and docks and met with the underprivileged citizens who had now been granted the right to vote for their leader. Themistocles took care to remember people’s names and he courted and took interest in the commoners. And for this, they loved him. The modern historian Tom Holland, writes about Themistocles in his book Persian Fire:

“he wooed the poor; and they, not used to being courted, duly loved him back. Touring the taverns, the markets, the docks, canvassing where no politician had thought to canvas before, making sure never to forget a single voter’s name, Themistocles had set his eyes on a radical new constituency” -Tom Holland, Persian Fire

The popularity of Themistocles would grant him great influence in the new democratic Athens. By the time he was 30 he was elected Archon Eponymous, the highest government office in Athens. He would use his political influence to pursue his goal of expanding the Athenian navy. In addition to being a brilliant speaker, politician and statesman, Themistocles also possessed the gift of foresight. A second Persian invasion was imminent, and Themistocles was determined to be prepared.

continue reading here

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Tags: Athens, democracy, Herodotus, Plutarch, Themistocles

A War for Water – The tale of two City-States

by plato April 30, 2013

Eannatum was the King of Lagash, a fertile town nestled between the Tigris and the Euphrates. While his domain was prosperous, Eannatum wanted more.

This ambitious king, upon receiving his power, understood that Lagash’s security relied on its water supply from the Shatt al-Gharraf. Unfortunately his neighbor, the city-state of Umma, also bordered this very important channel on the western bank. The chief cause of hostility between these important cities is unknown according to some historians, and while we can never be certain, it seems obvious to us that the conflict was over water.

Umma held this one strategic advantage over Lagash. Cutting the water supply to the city would hinder its domestic produce and trade via waterway, effectively crippling commerce in Lagash and sending prices upward on all commodities.

The Enmetena Cone, in the Louvre Museum. Photograph courtesy of Trevor Eccles

Knowing all this then, it might not be surprising that conflict between Lagash and Umma was common. We even have primary sources citing the fact. Enmetena, son of Eannatum II and nephew of the famed conqueror Eannatum I, recorded the history of the battles on a large rock known as the “Enmetena Cone.” The engraving describes the first war between the two powers, fighting for possession for the fertile fields of Guedena, located between the two great city-states.

But who decided the border between Lagash and Umma? King or God… or both?

It was, according to our historical cone, Enlil, who was considered the king of all the lands and father of all the gods. While Mesalim, king of Kish, confirmed the decision by placing a mark and a stele on the borderline.

The actual script reads:

Actual engraving

“Enlil, king of all the lands, father of all the gods,
by his righteous command, for Ningirsu and Shara,
demarcated the (border) ground.
Mesalim, king of Kish, by the command of Ishtaran,
laid the measuring line upon it, and on that place he erected a stele.”

This inscription is an entanglement of religion and the state. Enlil was the main Sumerian god. Therefore, he was the judge, jury, and executioner. Enlil was the god who fixed the boundaries and terrestrial estates of the lesser gods. His will could not be changed and his decisions final, regardless of divine assembly.

However, each city-state had a patron god. The god Ningirsu represented the city of Lagash, while Umma worshipped the god Shara.

Lagash made the argument that the borders were already set in place and Enlil was in favor of them retaining control over Guedena, our attractive fertile field. Umma saw things differently. A mediator, therefore, was needed to settle the dispute. That mediator would be none other than Mesalim, king of Kish, our second name on the historical cone.

The title “King of Kish” actually means “King of the world or King of Kings.” Mesalim was the supreme overseer of the Sumerian lands, which was the civilized world to these people. Mesalim’s decision was final… regardless of the moral argument.

What did this super King conclude? His ultimate directive was to build a trench, along with a levee, on either side to separate the two territories. Finally, the stele was erected at the border indicating his decision. Mesalim’s ruling, however, favored Lagash more so than Umma when it came to the water rights and the fertile fields of the Guedena.

The reason for this decision is unfortunately unknown. Of course we can never be sure, but could it be possible that Lagash was more powerful than Umma?

According to Mesalim, Enlil, the father of the gods, favored the stronger of the two city-states. However, all deities aside, Mesalim likely chose Lagash because it had a much stronger economy and military and could provide more to the loosely knit confederation of the Sumerian city-states in a time of crisis than Umma.

Therefore, in essence, the King of Kish picked the winners and losers of Sumer.

a Sumerian battle scene by HongNian Zhang

This was not the end of the border dispute between the two city-states. Later, Ush, ruler of Umma, marched to the border, smashed Mesalim’s stele, and advanced into Lagash territory. Ush proceeded with his forces to seize the fertile fields of Guedena.

Ush was later defeated from any further advance by an unknown Lagash king.

The Sumerian inscriptions state that, “Ningirsu, the hero of Enlil, by his just command, made war upon Umma. At the command of Enlil, his great net ensnared them. He erected their burial mound on the plain in that place.”

Rather than to the unknown king, the victory was granted to the patron god of the city of Lagash.

The reason there is no mention of the Lagash king is that Enmetena, the great-grandson of Ur-Nanshe, wrote the story. Ur-Nashe was the founder of the dynasty from which Enmetena came. The man who defeated Ush has to be none other than Lugal-sha-engur, the predecessor of King Ur-Nanshe.

So why would Enmetena not mention Lugal-sha-engur’s victory over Ush? Simple… Enmetena was not interested in giving thanks or glory to a dynasty that was not his own.

Check back Next week to see how Eannatum takes over the Sumerian valley and creates the first empire!

Read Part One: Lagash and the Too Fertile Valley Here: https://classicalwisdom.com/lagash/
—

“A War for Water – The tale of two City-States” was written by Cam Rea

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Tags: Eannatum, Enil, Guedena, Lagash, Mesalim, Umma

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